Ivan the Terrible (Ivan IV) and the transformation of the Grand Duchy into the Tsardom of Russia, establishing centralized authority.

1. Introduction to Historical Science

The rise of diverse political thought, from Decembrists to Narodniks (populists), leading to the complex political environment of the late 19th century. 5. Cultural and Spiritual Life

The reign of Alexander II is central, particularly the Abolition of Serfdom (1861) , which changed the social and economic fabric of the country.

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